Natural rubber is a polymer of molecule isoprene(C5H8),which contains five carbon atoms and eight hydrogen atoms and two double bonds.There are two forms of isoprene:cis and trans,we can determine whether isoprene is cis or trans by the location of the continuous chain.Isoprene tend to react with each other,forming polyisoprene.In cis natural carbon,two double bonds disappear and a new double bond form between two central carbons when two isoprene molecules combine.The continuous chains of isoprene locate on the same side,forming a cis natural.If the continuous chains locate on the different side of isoprene molecules,then they will form trans natural rubber. Cis form rubber is elastic and trans form rubber is brittle, non-elastic, and lacks flexibility.
The chemical structure is responsible for the elastic properties of rubber.The long flexible chains of cis natural rubber molecules do not lie close enough together,so when stretch is performed,these molecules can slip past one another,and when the stretch is removed,these molecule will move back.That is why rubber is so stretchable and has ability to return to its original shape when stretch is removed.But if we were to look at trans,we would find that trans isomer chains fit closely together,allowing for many cross-links between adjacent molecule,so molecule can not slip past one another.That is why trans natural rubber does not stretch.
Rubber was used in different fields due to its different properties.For example,trans isoprene polymer was favored by golfers.In 1848,“gutty”was invented.Gutty was made from gutta-percha(a plant that contains a high amount of trans isoprene polymer)that had been boiled in water,and molded into a sphere.It quickly became famous.But it had certain drawbacks,for it tend to break up in the midair.So players had to keep changing new balls during the game.At the end of 19th century,a new golf ball was invented,the ball was covered by rubber wound made by isoprene’s cis isomer.
Charles Macintosh,Glasgow chemist,led to an increased use of rubbers.He used naphtha(a waste product from the local gas works)as solvent to convert rubber into a pliable coating for fabric.making fabric waterproofed.From then on,rubber was used in many aspects:engines,hoses,boots and so on.But rubber still had many drawbacks,it became hard in winter and melted in summer,so the great demand of rubber started to decline.
Charles Goodyear,an American inventor and entrepreneur,tried to discover a method to make rubber heatproof during summer.He had the idea that mixing a dry powder with rubber could absorb the excess moisture,but nothing worked.In 1838,he accidentally dropped some rubber mixed with sulfur on the top of a hot stove,and he recognized potential of this new substance.Then he did a series of experiments in his family kitchen.Finally,he invented a rubber that was tough,elastic,and stable in hot and cold weather.When sulfur was added to natural rubber in a heated condition,cross-links could be formed,preventing them from melting and being brittle during summer and winter.And rubber could have different properties when different percentage of sulfur was added to rubber.For example,soft rubber contains about 1 to 3 percent sulfur;rubber made with 3 to 10 percent sulfur is used for vehicle tires;rubber contains 23 to 35 percent sulfur is used as insulators.From then on,rubber became popular among people,and the demand of rubber increased dramatically.However,rubber came from a natural source,which could not satisfy the great demand of rubber.So scientists started studying rubber plantation,trying to determine whether rubber could be cultivated by human.
Joseph Hooker,curator of Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew,established a propagating house and planted the rubber tree seed.Those rubber tree seeds were treated carefully and they began to germinate,which symbolized the beginning of plantation of rubber trees.
People also attempted to make synthetic rubber,but without success.In natural rubber,enzymes control the polymerization process so that the double bonds are cis.But people could not control the form of cis double bonds,the result was a product mixed of both cis and trans form.In 1953,the formation of double bonds became controllable.Karl Ziegler in Germany and Giulio Natta in Italy developed systems that can produce either cis or trans double bonds depending on the particular catalyst used.And they both receive Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1963,for their invention could make rubber products stronger,more durable,stiffer,less likely to be affected by solvents
The first man-made rubber was invented by a German.During world war one,German supplies of natural rubber was blockaded.German chemical companies started working on making man-made rubber.The man-made rubber was known as Styrene butadiene rubber(SBR),it was totally different from isoprene but it had similar properties as rubber.Styrene was isolated from the ballsam of the oriental sweet gum tree liquidamber orientalis.Styrene tend to form polymers instead of exist individually.When butadiene(CH2=CH-CH=CH2) was added to styrene,the mixture would form a rubber-like substance.The ratio of butadiene to styrene was about three to one.
Nowadays,if we take a look around us,we will find that rubbers are everywhere in our world:hose, tires, and rollers,almost everywhere in our society.
It's interesting how the shape of golf balls came from the fact that golfers realized their worn up rubber balls would travel farther then newer balls, leading to the dimples on the nowadays ball.
回复删除I thought it was really fastinating how at the time they were able to understand that sulfur would make the rubber less elastic and capable to keep its shape during the hot summers and cold winters.
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